BOOK: AOD Foundations

Andrews (1980) explored different types of discussion questions and their impacts on learner engagement in (in-person) discussions. 

His study identified the following question types:

• Playground questions, here educators give students wide latitude to talk about anything within a given topic.
  e.g., Instructor reads a passage from a text and says... There is a lot there. What's there?
  
• General invitation questions, which are like playground questions but with even vaguer boundaries.
• Brainstorming questions, where learners suggest as many options or possible solutions to question as possible.
  e.g., What possibilities are there for refuge in A Farewell to Arms?
  
• Focal questions, which calls for a decision.
  e.g., Where is this character better off? In the forest or in the city?
• Analytic convergent questions, where there is a single correct answer.
  e.g., What was the most important reason for the revolution's failure?
  
• Quiz show questions, which is similar to the above, but with a short one or two word response.
  e.g., He talks about envying one character. Who was it?
  
• Multiple consistent questions, which are a series of questions on the same topic that look at it from different perspectives and that require the same level of effort.
  e.g., Does Kafka like religion? ... Is our impression that Kafka's favourable to the development of Christianity? Are we meant to clap our hands and praise Christianity after reading this story?
  
• Shot gun questions, which are really several questions that differ in topic and intellectual difficulty. The educator asks them all and learners can choose to tackle each one in turn, or pick only one, or any approach that they prefer.
  e.g., How do you interpret what the narrator tells you about the hero? What do you make of his return from Law school? Why did he decide he didn't really expect too much?
  
• Funnel questions, which are similar to shot gun questions, except that the questions "funnel" students from a general playground into the narrow chute of a convergent question.
  
• Lower level divergent questions, seem like a divergent question inviting a brainstorm, but are really limited on what learners can respond.
  e.g., Were farmners richer or poorer than city dwellers in this period?
  

Andrews found that that to enhance the quality of classroom discussions, instructors should focus on crafting structured divergent questions (e.g., brainstorming and focal questions) that avoid ambiguity and explicitly indicate that multiple viewpoints are welcome, fostering an environment conducive to in-depth exploration and multiple responses. Consistency in the type and style of questions, particularly structured divergent ones, is crucial for maintaining student interest and participation. He advises that it is important for instructors to be comfortable with the level of openness their questions invite, ensuring they are prepared for a range of responses.  Questions such as Shotgun and Funnel Questions are also open-ended but produce confusion through cognitive overload.

Multiple consistent questions can work in that they are relatively focused and provide several things to chew on before providing the response to the first question. Andrews recommends the use of Bloom's taxonomy to ensure questions encourage higher-level thinking such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

• High-level questions require analysis, synthesis, or evaluation and often begin with "why" or "how." Low-level questions, or questions that require rote memory or restating course content, can help you assess whether or not students understand the material, but high-level questions are more engaging.
• Divergent questions have multiple plausible responses, which make them "safer" to answer. They also encourage high-level thinking (e.g., "What are some...?). Convergent questions only have one correct answer and are "riskier" (e.g., "What is the...?).
• Structured questions point students toward a context or frame within which they can formulate an answer (e.g., "What are some of the chemical structures at work in this solution according to our model?)" Unstructured questions (e.g., "What's at work in this solution?") are wide open and as a result can feel riskier to answer or can elicit responses outside of the relevant area. 
• Single questions clearly let students know what you are asking them (e.g., "How can this principle clarify the problem for practitioners?"). Ask just one question at a time and refrain from adding others to qualify or clarify what you're trying to express. Asking multiple questions in a row (e.g., How can the application of this principle clarify the problem? What about the principle is useful to practitioners? Why would practitioners in the field turn to this principle?) can leave students uncertain of which direction to move in.

Asking "how" and "why" questions, avoiding questions with one correct answer (including yes/no questions), making sure your question is sufficiently specific, and asking only one question at a time will help foster high-level thinking and engagement in your classes.

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